Nicoline Toresen Lokdam

• Bukten, Anne; Mehlum, Lars; Fazel, Seena; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Tverborgvik, Torill & Skurtveit, Svetlana Ondrasova [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2026). Sociodemographic, Criminological and Clinical Determinants in Suicide After Release From Prison: A 23‐Year National Cohort Study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. ISSN 0001-690X. doi: 10.1111/acps.70148. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  ABSTRACT Background Suicide risk is elevated after prison release, but population‐level evidence on temporal risk patterns and associated factors remains limited. We aimed to describe characteristics of individuals who die by suicide after release from Norwegian prisons, compare their suicide mortality with the general population, and examine risk factors over time. Material and Methods Data from the Norwegian Prison Release Study (nPRIS), including all people in prison in Norway (2000–2022), were linked to the Norwegian Cause of Death Registry, the Norwegian Prison Registry, the Norwegian Patient Registry, and Statistics Norway. We calculated crude mortality rates (CMR) per 100,000 person‐years, standardized mortality ratios (SMR), annual age‐standardized years of life lost rate (ASYR), and Cox proportional hazards models. Results From 2000 to 2022, 1183 suicides (9.1% of all deaths; CMR 81; 95% CI 76–85) occurred after release (90% male). The SMR was higher in women (SMR 8.64; 95% CI 7.17–10.34) than men (SMR 3.98; 95% CI 3.76–4.22). In multivariable models (2009–2022; n  = 57,034; 516 suicides), strong independent associations with suicide 6 months post‐release included self‐harm (adjusted HR [aHR] 4.76; 95% CI 2.60–8.72), severe mental illness (aHR 1.95; 95% CI 1.16–3.27), release from high‐security prisons (aHR 1.93; 95% CI 1.12–3.33), and pretrial detention (aHR 1.82; 95% CI 1.06–3.13). Conclusions Suicide risk is substantially and persistently elevated relative to the general population, peaks immediately after release, and is concentrated among people with prior self‐harm, severe mental illness, and those released from high‐security settings.

• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Favril, Louis; Scarth, Morgan Elizabeth; Tverborgvik, Torill & Andersen, Lars Højsgaard [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Mental health disorders and risk of solitary confinement among incarcerated individuals: a nationwide longitudinal cohort study from Norway. BMJ Mental Health. 29(1), p. 302849–302849. doi: 10.1136/bmjment-2026-302849. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Solitary confinement is extensively used in prisons, constituting a risk of deteriorating health. However, its associations with mental health disorders remain unclear. Objective To investigate the association between history of diagnosed mental health disorders and solitary confinement among incarcerated individuals. Methods We included 35 210 individuals with 51 502 incarcerations in Norway from 2015 to 2022 in the Norwegian Prison Release study (nPRIS), linking national prison, health, mortality and demographic registries. Mental health disorders diagnosed within 5 years before incarceration were identified. The primary outcome was solitary confinement and four subtypes: court decided, disciplinary, self-requested and security cell. By analysing all incarcerations, we estimated adjusted ORs (aORs) and rate ratios (RRs) with logistic and negative binomial regression, using robust SEs to account for individual-level clustering across multiple incarcerations. Findings Among all individuals with a 5-year history of diagnosed mental health disorders (n=18 315), 30.8% experienced solitary confinement, compared with 21.3% among those without a diagnosis (n=16 895). Mental health disorders were associated with higher odds of any solitary confinement (aOR 1.77, 95% CI 1.68 to 1.85) and security cell placement (aOR 4.28, 95% CI 3.57 to 5.13). People with mental health disorders also had a higher rate of disciplinary (adjusted rate ratio (aRR) 3.84, 95% CI 3.41 to 4.33) and self-requested (aRR 2.46, 95% CI 1.91 to 3.18) solitary confinement days. Substance use disorders, severe mental illness and multimorbidity were associated with a higher rate of solitary confinement days, while mental health disorders were inversely associated with court decided solitary confinement (aOR 0.52, 95% CI 0.47 to 0.57; aRR 0.48, 95% CI 0.41 to 0.57). Conclusion People with a history of diagnosed mental health disorders disproportionately experience solitary confinement in prison, risking further deterioration of health. Clinical implications Health authorities and correctional services should reduce solitary confinement and develop alternative, health-protective segregation strategies for people with mental health disorders.

• Bukten, Anne; Mehlum, Lars; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Tverborgvik, Torill & Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim (2026). Rates, Timing and Correlates of Suicide in Norwegian Prisons: A 23-Year National Cohort Study. Archives of Suicide Research. ISSN 1381-1118. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2026.2680205. Full text in Research Archive
• Tverborgvik, Torill; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Jordan, Amalie & Bukten, Anne (2025). The burden of mental health and somatic disorders among people experiencing incarceration later in life: A 13-year cohort study. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. 373. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118007. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background The growing number of older incarcerated individuals presents unique challenges for prison systems traditionally tailored for younger, healthier populations. Research on this demographic is crucial for informing effective health and correctional policies. Method Using data from the nPRIS-cohort, all people incarcerated at age 50 or older in Norway 2010–2022 were included. Study prevalence for selected disorders were calculated based on ICD-10 diagnoses registered in The Norwegian Patient Registry up until a person's last release date. One-year prevalence was calculated at prison entry each calendar year. Results Including 1120 women and 9667 men; 63 % of women and 62 % of men aged 50–64, and 70 % of women and 75 % of men aged 65+ were diagnosed with a somatic disorder. Among women, 63 % (50–64 years) and 49 % (65+ years) had a mental health disorder, as did 53 % and 38 % of the men. There were significant differences in diagnostic prevalence between sex and age groups. Thirty-eight percent of the population had comorbid diagnoses, higher among the youngest women (50–64 year: 46 %). The one-year prevalence of individuals with mental disorders increased from 23 % in 2010 to 34 % in 2022, while the one-year prevalence of communicable and noncommunicable diseases remained consistent over time. Conclusions This study presents the first comprehensive description of the mental and somatic health burden of older individuals incarcerated in Norway. Our results underscore the urgent need for correctional and health services to implement tailored interventions that address the unique healthcare requirements of this aging population.

• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Skjærvø, Ingeborg & Bukten, Anne (2024). Treatment utilization among people with drug use disorders in prison: a national longitudinal cohort study. Health & Justice. 12(1). doi: 10.1186/s40352-024-00302-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Drug use disorders are highly prevalent among people in prison. Nevertheless, treatment coverage for individuals with drug use disorders in prison remains understudied and unknown. The aim of this study was to estimate treatment coverage among a sample of people with harmful and likely drug dependence before entering prison and to investigate the factors associated with treatment utilization. Methods This was a longitudinal cohort study using baseline survey data linked to registry data on imprisonment and treatment utilization. The study is based on the Norwegian Offender Mental Health and Addiction (NorMA) cohort (n = 733) recruited in 2013–2014 from 57 Norwegian prisons. At baseline, participants reported drug use the year before imprisonment, using the Drug Use Disorder Identification Test (DUDIT). The outcome of interest was DUD treatment, defined as at least one DUD treatment episode from the specialized health services during baseline imprisonment. Results 40% of the sample had DUDIT scores that indicated likely drug dependence (≥ 25) and a need for treatment. Among this group, 64% received DUD treatment while imprisoned. Longer imprisonment (> 12 months; aOR = 8.87, p < 0.001), Nordic country of birth (aOR = 2.85, p = 0.003), daily/almost daily injecting drug use (aOR = 2.58, p < 0.001) and polydrug use (aOR = 2.19, p = 0.002) were positively associated with treatment utilization in prison. Conclusions Most people with likely drug dependence before entering prison in Norway received DUD treatment during their time in prison. More severe drug use (Injecting drug use and polydrug use), longer imprisonments and being born in the Nordics were positively associated with treatment utilization. People in prison must have access to adequate treatment during imprisonment, and further studies should investigate the possible individual or structural barriers resulting in treatment gaps, especially for people who are foreign born and people with short sentences.

• Lokdam, Nicoline; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Bukten, Anne (2022). Drug use and re-imprisonment: A prospective study of the Norwegian Offender Mental Health and Addiction (NorMA) cohort. Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports. ISSN 2772-7246. 5. doi: 10.1016/j.dadr.2022.100127. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Bukten, Anne (2021). Exploring the external validity of survey data with triangulation: A case study from the Norwegian Offender Mental Health and Addiction (NorMA) Study. Research Methods in Medicine & Health Sciences. ISSN 2632-0843. 2(5), p. 140–147. doi: 10.1177/26320843211061298. Full text in Research Archive

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• Bukten, Anne; Mehlum, Lars; Fazel, Seena; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Skurtveit, Svetlana Ondrasova & Ericson, Øystein Bruun [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2026). Risikofaktorer for selvmord under fengsling og etter løslatelse. Full text in Research Archive
• Bukten, Anne; Mehlum, Lars; Fazel, Seena; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Tverborgvik, Torill & Skurtveit, Svetlana Ondrasova [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2026). Psykisk helse i fengsel. Risikofaktorer for selvmord under fengsling og etter løslatelse. doi: https:/www.fagligforum.no/event/rus-og-psykisk-helse-2026/. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Favril, Louis; Scarth, Morgan Elizabeth; Tverborgvik, Torill & Andersen, Lars Højsgaard [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Isolasjon og psykisk helse i norske fengsler. doi: https:/www.fagligforum.no/event/rus-og-psykisk-helse-2026/. Full text in Research Archive
• Bukten, Anne; Mehlum, Lars; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Fazel, Seena; Tverborgvik, Torill & Skurtveit, Svetlana Ondrasova [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2025). Suicides among people in prison. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Tverborgvik, Torill & Bukten, Anne (2025). Registrert isolasjon i norske fengsler 2015 - 2022. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Frøjd, Lars Aastebøl; Ferrand, Lisa Elvebakk; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Bukten, Anne & Svendsen, Vegard Testad (2025). Cardiovascular disease among women in prison. Full text in Research Archive
• Tverborgvik, Torill; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen & Bukten, Anne (2025). Personar med psykisk utviklingshemming og autism e i norske fengsler 2009 - 2022. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Bukten, Anne; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Tverborgvik, Torill (2025). Solitary confinement and mental health disorders in Norwegian prisons. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction: Solitary confinement is extensively used in Norwegian prisons, despite the well-known detrimental effects on morbidity and mortality. Furthermore, previous international research has suggested that mental health disorders among people in prison increase their risk of being placed in solitary confinement. This study will investigate the prevalence of pre-existing mental health disorders among people exposed to solitary confinement in prisons in Norway, and the risk of solitary confinement among people with pre-existing mental health disorders. Aims: 1) Describe sociodemographic and criminogenic factors associated with solitary confinement 2) Describe the prevalence of mental health disorders among people experiencing solitary confinement during incarceration, 3) Describe the prevalence of solitary confinement for incarcerated people with mental health disorders, and 4) Investigate the risk factors (sociodemographic, criminogenic, and pre-prison mental health and substance use disorders) associated with solitary confinement Methods: This is a retrospective longitudinal cohort study using registry data on solitary confinement and incarceration from the Norwegian Correctional Services, linked to information on mental health disorders from the Norwegian patient registry. We study a cohort of people incarcerated in Norway from 2015-2022 (n=35 210) and measure the prevalence of mental health disorder 5 years prior to incarceration. We define mental health disorders as receiving specialized health care services registered with a diagnosis from the F-chapter of the ICD-10. We performed Poisson regression analysis to estimate the incidence rate ratios, using days of solitary confinement as the count variables and nesting on personal ID. Results: Pre-liminary results show a high prevalence of mental health disorders among people who experience solitary confinement. People with severe mental illness have a particular high prevalence of solitary confinement decided by the correctional services. Conclusions: People with known mental health disorders have a higher risk of experiencing solitary confinement in prison. To reduce the use of solitary confinement and prevent the negative health consequences, correctional services and health care providers need to provide people with mental health disorders in prison with access to treatment and preventive efforts.

• Olsen, Hilgunn; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen & Mæhlumshagen, Maria Synnøve (2025). Isolasjon gjør fengslene farligere for de ansatte. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Skjærvø, Ingeborg; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Bukten, Anne (2024). Rusbehandling i Norske fængsler. Full text in Research Archive
• Bukten, Anne; Tverborgvik, Torill & Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen (2024). Om PriSUD-prosjektet. Full text in Research Archive
• Boyle, Rose Elizabeth & Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen (2024). Substance use disorder treatment in prisons. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Bukten, Anne (2024). Substance Use Disorder in Norwegian prisons. Full text in Research Archive
• Tverborgvik, Torill; Bukten, Anne & Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen (2024). PriSUD-prosjektet, en oversikt. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen & Bukten, Anne (2024). Nytt forskningsprosjekt på isolasjon – Utvikling, risikofaktorer og konsekvenser. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Presentasjon av forskningsprosjektet på isolasjon.

• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen (2024). Varetægt udløser voldsomme psykiske problemer. [Radio]. DR P1. Full text in Research Archive
• Tverborgvik, Torill; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Bukten, Anne & Jordan, Amalie (2024). Incarceration at older age; the burden of mental and somatic disorders – a 13-year cohort study. Full text in Research Archive
• Tverborgvik, Torill; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Bukten, Anne (2024). Incarceration at older age; the burden of mental and somatic disorders – a 13-year cohort study. Full text in Research Archive
• Tverborgvik, Torill; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen & Bukten, Anne (2024). Incarceration at older age; the burden of mental and somatic disorders – a 13-year cohort study. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen (2024). Substance Use Disorders in the Norwegian Prison Population – Needs, treatment and post-release outcomes. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen (2024). Account for various aspects of the follow-up offered to inmates with complex health challenges, including substance abuse problems, upon release from prison in a Scandinavian context. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline; Skjærvø, Ingeborg; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Bukten, Anne (2023). Rusbrukslidelser blant personer i Norske fengsler – Behov, behandling og tilbakefall til fengsel. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Bukten, Anne (2023). Isolasjonsfengsling - Forekomst, risikofaktorer og konsekvenser. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Bruken av isolasjon i norske fengsel blir ofte kritisert både nasjonalt og internasjonalt. Vi vet isolasjon er skadelig for helsen, men det er fortsatt mange ting vi ikke vet om bruken av isolasjon og hvilke konsekvenser isolasjonsbruken har på de innsattes helse. Dette ønsker vi å undersøke i PriSUD prosjektet, hvor vi har mulighet til å følge de som har sittet isolert over tid, både i forhold til nye fengslinger, ny kriminalitet og helsestatus.

• Lokdam, Nicoline; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim & Bukten, Anne (2022). Drug use and re-imprisonment. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline (2022). Rusbruk og tilbakefall til fengsel. Full text in Research Archive
• Tverborgvik, Torill; Lokdam, Nicoline & Svendsen, Vegard Gjerden (2022). Paneldiskusjon: Helse og behandling i fengsel. Full text in Research Archive
• Bukten, Anne; Lokdam, Nicoline; Skjærvø, Ingeborg; Ugelvik, Thomas; Skurtveit, Svetlana Ondrasova & Gabrhelík, Roman [Show all 20 contributors for this article] (2022). PriSUD-Nordic—Diagnosing and Treating Substance Use Disorders in the Prison Population: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Study. JMIR Research Protocols. 11(3). doi: 10.2196/35182. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: A large proportion of the prison population experiences substance use disorders (SUDs), which are associated with poor physical and mental health, social marginalization, and economic disadvantage. Despite the global situation characterized by the incarceration of large numbers of people with SUD and the health problems associated with SUD, people in prison are underrepresented in public health research. Objective: The overall objective of the PriSUD (Diagnosing and Treating Substance Use Disorders in Prison)-Nordic project is to develop new knowledge that will contribute to better mental and physical health, improved quality of life, and better life expectancies among people with SUD in prison. Methods: PriSUD-Nordic is based on a multidisciplinary mixed method approach, including the methodological perspectives of both quantitative and qualitative methods. The qualitative part includes ethnographic fieldwork and semistructured interviews. The quantitative part is a registry-based cohort study including national registry data from Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. The national prison cohorts will comprise approximately 500,000 individuals and include all people imprisoned in Norway, Sweden, and Demark during the period from 2000 to 2019. The project will investigate the prison population during three different time periods: before imprisonment, during imprisonment, and after release. Results: PriSUD-Nordic was funded by The Research Council of Norway in December 2019, and funding started in 2020. Data collection is ongoing and will be completed in the first quarter of 2022. Data will be analyzed in spring 2022 and the results will be disseminated in 2022-2023. The PriSUD-Nordic project has formal ethical approval related to all work packages. Conclusions: PriSUD-Nordic will be the first research project to investigate the epidemiology and the lived experiences of people with SUD in the Nordic prison population. Successful research in this field will have the potential to identify significant areas of benefit and will have important implications for ongoing policy related to interventions for SUD in the prison population.

• Lokdam, Nicoline (2021). Substance use and re-imprisonment. Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline & Olsen, Hilgunn (2021). Har vi glemt fengselsinnsatte i håndteringen av koronapandemien? Full text in Research Archive
• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim; Tverborgvik, Torill & Bukten, Anne (2025). Registrert isolasjon i norske fengsler - 2015-2022, SERAF Rapport 3/2025. Senter for Rus- og Avhengighetsforskning (Seraf), UiO. doi: https:/www.prisud.no/_files/ugd/40402d_fab482b39eac49d0ac925b69f65d185c.pdf. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Denne rapporten er en del av forskningsprosjektet «Isolasjon i norske fengsler - Utvikling, risikofaktorer og konsekvenser» finansiert av Stiftelsen Dam og med Norges Røde Kors som samarbeidsorganisasjon. Rapporten er utarbeidet av forskere i PriSUD-prosjektet ved Senter for Rus- og avhengighetsforskning (SERAF) ved Universitetet i Oslo (UiO).

• Lokdam, Nicoline Toresen; Bukten, Anne & Stavseth, Marianne Riksheim (2024). Substance use disorders in the Norwegian prison population: Needs, treatment, and post-release outcomes. Universitetet i Oslo. ISSN 9788234804366. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The global prison population continues to grow annually, while the number imprisoned in Norway each year has decreased over decades. Concurrently, those who end up in prison have become an increasingly marginalized group, characterized by escalating socio-economic challenges and mental health disorders. Particularly, substance use disorders are more prevalent among incarcerated individuals compared to the general population. This dissertation examines substance use disorders among people in prison in Norway, the negative consequences associated with high-risk drug use, and the utilization of drug use disorder treatment during imprisonment. The dissertation has followed a cohort of 733 individuals who were imprisoned in 2013-2014, following them until the end of 2019 through Norwegian registries. More than 40% had high-risk drug use, 18% had a likely alcohol dependence, and 47% were likely dependent on alcohol and/or drugs. More than half of individuals with a likely substance use disorder were re-incarcerated within 1000 days after release, and they had a four times higher risk of re-incarceration compared to individuals with low-risk substance use. More than 60% of people with high-risk drug use received treatment for drug use during incarceration. The use of multiple substances, injecting drug use, longer sentences, and Nordic origin were associated with receiving treatment. The results highlight the high prevalence of substance use disorders and social marginalization among individuals in Norwegian prisons. This underscores the necessity of systematic screening for substance use disorders among incarcerated individuals and a significant need for follow-up and treatment. Future research should examine the extent and quality of current treatment, as well as its effectiveness in improving health outcomes, reducing recidivism, and enhancing the well-being of people in prison.

• Bukten, Anne; Lokdam, Nicoline; Clausen, Thomas & Skjærvø, Ingeborg (2021). Bruk, besittelse og ruspåvirket kjøring blant innsatte i Norske fengsel 2000-2019. Senter for rus og avhengighetsforskning (SERAF). Full text in Research Archive

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