Christoph Gradmann

Some of my books

Another Magic Mountain: Kibong'oto Hospital and African Tuberculosis, 1920-2000. Ohio University Press 2025. (ISBN 0821426338). 328 pp.

with Jean-Paul, Gaudilliére; Beaudevin, Claire;  Lovell, Anne L. & Pordie, Laurent. Global health and the new world order: Historical and anthropological approaches to a changing regime of governance. Manchester University Press 2020.  (ISBN 9781526149671)  248 pp.

with Simon, Jonathan. Evaluating and Standardizing Therapeutic Agents, 1890 - 1950. Palgrave Macmillan 2010 (ISBN 978-0-230-20281-8) 266 pp.

Laboratory Disease: Robert Koch's Medical Bacteriology. Johns Hopkins University Press 2009 (ISBN 0801893135) 318 pp.

Krankheit im Labor. Robert Koch und die medizinische Bakteriologie. Wallstein Verlag 2005 (ISBN 3892449228) 376 pp.

with Schlich, Thomas. Strategien der Kausalität: Konzepte der Krankheitsverursachung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus Verlag 1999 (ISBN 3-8255-0173-6) 275 pp.

with Eckart, Wolfgang Uwe. Ärztelexikon: Von der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert. C.H. Beck 1995 (ISBN 3-406-37485-9) 439 pp.

Historische Belletristik: Populäre historische Biographien in der Weimarer Republik. Campus Verlag 1993 (ISBN 3-59334881-0) 256 pp.

Some of my papers

Mangesho, Peter Ernest & Gradmann, Christoph (2026). Asian Drug Import, Local Production and Regulatory Capacity in Tanzania, 1970 – 2005. Nordic Journal of African Studies. ISSN 1235-4481.  https://doi.org/10.53228/r27z5902

with Beaudevin, Claire; Gaudilliére, Jean-Paul & Gradmann (2022). The local roots of ‘health for all’: Primary health care in practices, 1950s–2000s. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115321.

with Chandler, Clare; Kirchhelle, Claas et al (2020). Setting the standard: Multidisciplinary hallmarks for structural, equitable and tracked antibiotic policy. BMJ Global Health.  ISSN 2059-7908.  5:e003091(9), s 1- 14 . doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003091

Treatment on Trial: Tanzania’s National Tuberculosis Program, the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, and the Road to DOTS, 1977-1991. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences  74 (2019), 316-343.

From lighthouse to hothouse: hospital hygiene, antibiotics and the evolution of infectious disease, 1950–1990. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 40:8 (2018), 1-25.

Re-Inventing Infectious Disease: Antibiotic Resistance and Drug Development at the Bayer Company 1945-1980, Medical History 60 (2016), 155-180.

‘A Spirit of Scientific Rigour’: Koch's Postulates and 20th Century Medicine, Microbes and Infection 16 (2014), 885-892.

with Asdal, Kristin. Science, technology, medicine - and the state: The science-state nexus in Scandinavia 1850-1980. Science in Context 27 2014, 177-186.

Sensitive Matters. The World Health Organisation and Antibiotics Resistance Testing, 1945 – 1975, Social History of Medicine 26 (2013), 555-574.

Magic Bullets and Moving Targets: Antibiotic Resistance and Experimental Chemotherapy 1900 - 1940. Dynamis 31 (2011), pp. 29-45.

Robert Koch and the invention of the carrier state: tropical medicine, veterinary infections and epidemiology around 1900. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 41 (2010) , pp.. 232-240.

with Evensen, Stein A.; Larsen, Øivind; Nylenna, Magne.Da hiv kom til Norge. Michael 7/1 (2010), pp.  12-157.

Locating therapeutic vaccines in nineteenth-century history. Science in Context 21 (2008),  pp. 145-160.

Invisible Enemies: Bacteriology and the Language of Politics in Imperial Germany. Science in Context 13 (2000), pp.  9-30.
 

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• Mangesho, Peter Ernest & Gradmann, Christoph (2026). Asian Drug Import, Local Production and Regulatory Capacity in Tanzania, 1970 – 2005. Nordic Journal of African Studies. ISSN 1235-4481. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2025). Robert Koch und das Tuberkulin – Anatomie eines Fehlschlags. Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. ISSN 0012-0472. 150(21), p. 1314–1318. doi: 10.1055/a-2650-1592. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2025). Robert Koch und das Tuberkulin – Anatomie eines Fehlschlags. Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. ISSN 0012-0472. 150(21), p. 1318–1318. doi: 10.1055/a-2650-1592. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Für die Wissenschaftsgeschichte hat die Geschichte von Irrtümern und Fehlschlägen einen besonderen Reiz: Erfolgreiche Erfindungen oder Entdeckungen stellen scheinbar einfache Vorgeschichten unserer Gegenwart dar. Dagegen regt die Analyse von Irrtümern dazu an, die historische Realität wissenschaftlicher Ansichten in Augenschein zu nehmen, die den Zeitgenossen zutreffend, späteren Betrachtern jedoch als falsch erschienen. Die Geschichte solcher Phänomene besteht gerade darin, dass sie als „zutreffende“ entstanden und später zu „irrtümlichen“ wurden. Dabei verschwinden Irrtümer nicht notwendigerweise mit ihrer Aufklärung. Die Folge ist zumeist eher ein Konflikt von Meinungen, in dem einige Zeitgenossen weiterhin die angeblichen Irrtümer als Fakten betrachten, andere aber ihre einzelnen Bestandteile neu erklären und damit neue Forschungsgegenstände entwickeln. In einer Wissenschaftsgeschichte der Irrtümer tritt also die Komplexität historischer Prozesse deutlicher hervor, als dies bei einer Wissenschaftsgeschichte der (erfolgreichen) Entdeckungen und Erfindungen üblicherweise der Fall ist. Gegenstände der Forschung unterliegen einem steten Prozess der Um- und Neuformulierung. Der Irrtum stellt hierbei in gewisser Weise einen Sonderfall dar. Es hat den Anschein, dass Ansichten den Zeitgenossen besonders dann als Irrtümer erschienen, wenn sie sehr schnell oder sehr grundlegend korrigiert wurden. Dem Wissenschaftshistoriker bietet sich hier die Gelegenheit, den Normalprozess der Wissenschaft an seinem Extremfall zu studieren. Das von Robert Koch 1890 als Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose präsentierte Tuberkulin ist ein solches historisches Phänomen: Obwohl die Substanz – ein Extrakt aus Tuberkulose-Reinkulturen – von damals zu heute keine grundlegenden Unterschiede aufweist, so ist doch Kochs Verständnis der Wirkung des Mittels mit unserem heutigen kaum zu vereinbaren. Nicht wenige Autoren sind der Versuchung erlegen, Kochs Mittel in die Frühgeschichte der Erforschung des anaphylaktischen Schocks und der bakteriellen Allergie einzuordnen. Für seinen Erfinder war es aber etwas ganz anderes: ein Heilmittel gegen die größte Volksseuche des 19. Jahrhunderts, die Tuberkulose. Es diente eben nicht – wie heutzutage – der Erzeugung einer diagnostisch verwertbaren verzögerten Überempfindlichkeitsreaktion. Kochs Überzeugung, mit dem Tuberkulin ein Therapeutikum zu besitzen, wurde von seinen Zeitgenossen für einige Wochen im Herbst und Winter 1890/91 geteilt, und die Geschichte des Tuberkulins als Heilmittel ist damit auch die einer beispiellosen Euphorie, eines „Tuberkulin-Rausches“, auf die eine nicht minder dramatische Ernüchterung folgte.

• Portillo, Mirza Alas; Rodríguez, Isabel M. Gómez; Gradmann, Christoph; Kirchhelle, Claas; Leisner, Jørgen J. & Martinenghi, Laura Daniela [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2024). Paradoxes of the antibiotic pipeline. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. doi: 10.1057/s41599-024-03211-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The escalating challenge of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has led to a surge of global research and policy discourse on refilling an empty antibiotic pipeline. The empty pipeline metaphor is, however, wrought with paradoxes. Drawing on critical social sciences and humanities research on pharmaceutical innovation, this comment article presents five of the key paradoxes that structure contemporary innovation discourse: Was the so-called “Golden Age” of antibiotics really golden? Was rational drug design truly rational in terms of antibiotic development? Was the antibiotic pipeline really built on a foundation of scientific breakthroughs by an elite group of (male) inventors? How can antibiotics, powerful symbols of industrial power, be considered as market failures? How could the crisis of antibiotics become the golden hour of their policing? Rather than dissect each paradox, the article aims to complicate standard problem diagnoses and encourage creative new conceptualizations of inclusive antimicrobial innovation.

• Martinenghi, Laura Daniela; Skender, Belma; Leisner, Jørgen J. & Gradmann, Christoph (2024). Plectasin’s Odyssey From Hopeful Beginnings to Untimely End. Michael. ISSN 1893-9651. doi: 10.5617/michael.11417. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The seminar "Plectasin's Odyssey: From Hopeful Beginnings to Untimely End," held on the 16th of November 2023 at University of Copenhagen, Denmark, gives us an overview of the challenges in developing new antibiotics inside the antimicrobial pipeline. The seminar focused on the story of Plectasin, the first antimicrobial peptide found in a fungus, discovered by Novozymes back in 2002. A group of twelve people was invited, including key figures of the original discovery team of Plectasin, as well as academic historians and researchers. The story of Plectasin highlighted how complex and challenging it is to bring a new drug into pharmaceutical development. The participants reflected on the initial excitement of discovering Plectasin and its potential as a good antimicrobial candidate. Subsequently, discussions focused on market obstacles, including the crucial roles of regulatory and economic stakeholders. The issue of a visible gap between the health system’s needs and the pharmaceutical industry’s focus, the importance of innovative funding and development models, and the potential for repurposing shelved antimicrobial candidates were addressed. However, it was agreed that publication of the discovery in prestigious journals such as Nature and Science added to the perceived competence by the public of Novozymes as a company. In summary, a common thread in the discussion was the urgent need for a shift towards more collaborative, community-focused, and sustainably financed strategies in antibiotic development. Such a change is essential if we are to stand a chance in the global fight against antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

• Ereso, Berhane Megerssa; Sagbakken, Mette; Gradmann, Christoph & Yimer, Solomon Abebe (2024). Determinants of an unfavorable treatment outcome among tuberculosis patients in the Jimma Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. Scientific Reports. 14:29281(1), p. 1–11. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-78084-0. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health challenge in Ethiopia. TB treatment outcomes were suboptimal compared to the expected target of the national TB control Program. The provision of standard anti-TB treatment is the primary component of the directly observed treatment, short-course strategy. The aim of this study was to assess the TB treatment outcomes and the determinants of an unfavorable treatment outcome. The study used a cross-sectional study design at baseline and record review to identify treatment outcomes. A total of 1,161 TB patients were recruited from eight randomly selected districts and one town administration in the Jimma Zone, Ethiopia. Treatment outcomes were grouped into favorable and unfavorable. Of the total participants, 86.9% had a favorable treatment outcome, and 5.7% an unfavorable treatment outcome. The rest were transferred out and not recorded cases. Women were more likely to experience an unfavorable treatment outcome [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.96, 95% CI 1.06, 3.64]. Patients who were perceived to not be stigmatized were less likely to have an unfavorable treatment outcome (AOR = 0.32, 95% CI 0.15, 0.73). Patients who had a monthly income of > 3,500 Ethiopian birr were less likely to have an unfavorable outcome than patients who did not have a regular income (AOR = 0.04, 95% CI 0.01, 0.45). The observed treatment success rate is lower than the World Health Organization’s target of successfully treating > 90% of detected TB cases. It is imperative to ensure that information, education and communication/behavior change communication strategies consider the needs of women and patients with perceived TB stigma. Furthermore, designing locally acceptable and affordable interventions may help to address the financial challenges of TB treatment adherence.

• Gradmann, Christoph & Kirchhelle, Claas (2023). Pills and Politics - a historical analysis of international antibiotic regulation since 1945, Steering Against Superbugs: The Global Governance of Antimicrobial Resistance. Oxford University Press. ISSN 9780192899477. p. 19–30. doi: https:/academic.oup.com/book/46459/chapter/407756909. Full text in Research Archive
• Asaduzzaman, Muhammad; Mekonnen, Zeleke; Rødland, Ernst Kristian; Sahay, Sundeep; Winkler, Andrea Sylvia & Gradmann, Christoph (2023). District health information system (DHIS2) as integrated antimicrobial resistance surveillance platform: An exploratory qualitative investigation of the one health stakeholders’ viewpoints in Ethiopia. International Journal of Medical Informatics. ISSN 1386-5056. 181. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2023.105268. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction There is an unmet need for One Health (OH) surveillance and reporting systems for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in resource poor settings. District health information system, version 2 (DHIS2), is a globally recognized digital surveillance platform which has not been widely utilized for AMR data yet. Our study aimed to understand the local stakeholders’ viewpoints on DHIS2 as OH-AMR surveillance platform in Jimma, Ethiopia which will aid its further context specific establishment. Methods We performed an exploratory qualitative study using semi-structured key informant interviews (KIIs) in Jimma Zone at Southwest Ethiopia. We interviewed 42 OH professionals between November 2020 and February 2021. Following verbatim transcription of the audio recordings of KIIs, we conducted thematic analysis. Results We identified five major themes which are important for understanding the trajectory of OH-AMR surveillance in DHIS2 platform. The themes were: (1) Stakeholders' current knowledge on digital surveillance platforms including DHIS2. (2) Stakeholders' perception on digital surveillance platform including DHIS2. (3) Features suggested by stakeholders to be included in the surveillance platform. (4) Comments from stakeholders on system implementation challenges. (5) Stakeholders' perceived role in the process of implementation. Despite several barriers and challenges, most of the participants perceived and suggested DHIS2 as a suitable OH-AMR surveillance platform and were willing to contribute at their current professional roles. Conclusions Our study demonstrates the potential of the DHIS2 as a user friendly and acceptable interoperable platform for OH-AMR surveillance if the technology designers accommodate the stakeholders’ concerns. Piloting at local level and using performance appraisal tool in all OH disciplines should be the next step before proceeding to workable format.

• Ereso, Berhane Megerssa; Sagbakken, Mette; Gradmann, Christoph & Yimer, Solomon Abebe (2023). Total delay and associated factors among tuberculosis patients in Jimma Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. PLOS ONE. 18(2). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281546. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Delays in diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis (TB) increases severity of illness and con- tinued transmission of TB in the community. Understanding the magnitude and factors asso- ciated with total delay is imperative to expedite case detection and treatment of TB. The aim of this study was to determine the length and analyze factors associated with total delay. Methods Analytic cross-sectional study was conducted in Jimma Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. All newly diagnosed TB patients > 15 years of age were included from randomly selected eight dis- tricts and one town in the study area. A structured questionnaire was applied to collect socio-demographic and clinical data. The median total delay was used to dichotomize the sample into delayed and non-delayed patient categories. Logistic regression analysis was used to analyse the association between independent and outcome variables. A p-value < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results A total of 1,161 patients were included in this study. The median total delay was 35 days. Patients who had swelling or wound in the neck region were more likely to be delayed than their counterpart [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 3.02, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.62, 5.62]. Women were more likely to experience longer total delay (AOR = 1.46, 95% CI:1.00, 2.14) compared to men. Patients who had poor knowledge of TB were more likely to be delayed compared to those who had good knowledge (AOR = 3.92, 95% CI: 2.65, 5.80). Conclusion The present study showed long total delay in diagnosis and treatment of TB. Targeted inter- ventions that enhance TB knowledge and practice, expedite early suspect identification, referral and management of all forms of TB is imperative to reduce total delay in diagnosis and treatment of TB.

• Pitchforth, Emma; Gemma-Clare, Ali; Smith, Elta; Taylor, Jirka; Rayner, Tim & Lichten, Catherine [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2023). What and how can we learn from complex global problems for antimicrobial resistance policy? A comparative study combining historical and foresight approaches. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance. ISSN 2213-7165. 35, p. 110–121. doi: 10.1016/j.jgar.2023.08.019. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives To (i) develop a methodology for using historical and comparative perspectives to inform policy and (ii) provide evidence for antimicrobial-resistance (AMR) policymaking by drawing on lessons from climate change and tobacco control. Methods Using a qualitative design, we systematically examined two other complex, large-scale policy issues—climate change and tobacco control—to identify what relevance to AMR can be learned from how these issues have evolved over time. During 2018–2020, we employed a five-stage approach to conducting an exploratory study involving a review of secondary historical analysis, identification of drivers of change, prioritisation of the identified drivers, scenario generation and elicitation of possible policy responses. We sought to disrupt more ‘traditional’ policy and research spaces to create an alternative where, stimulated by historical analysis, academics (including historians) and policymakers could come together to challenge norms and practices and think creatively about AMR policy design. Results An iterative process of analysis and engagement resulted in lessons for AMR policy concerning persistent evidence gaps and uncertainty, the need for cross-sector involvement and a collective effort through global governance, the demand for new interventions through more investment in research and innovation, and recognising the dynamic relationship between social change and policy to change people's attitudes and behaviours are crucial towards tackling AMR. Conclusion We draw on new methodological lessons around the pragmatism of future- and policy-oriented approaches incorporating robust historical and comparative analysis. The study demonstrates proof of concept and offers a reproducible method to advance further methodology, including transferrable policies that could tackle health problems, such as AMR.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2022). This is the End: Eradicating Tuberculosis in Modern Times. Centaurus. Journal of the European Society for the History of Science. ISSN 0008-8994. 64(1), p. 171–180. doi: 10.1484/J.CNT.5.129633. Full text in Research Archive
• Najjarzadehghalati, Farzad; Gradmann, Christoph & Kaboodkhani, Reza (2022). A Qualitative Study of Iranian Candidates’ Awareness, Expectations and Motivational Factors Related to Nose Job Surgery (Rhinoplasty). Electronic Journal of General Medicine. doi: 10.29333/ejgm/11564. Full text in Research Archive
• Beaudevin, Claire; Gaudilliére, Jean-Paul & Gradmann, Christoph (2022). The local roots of ‘health for all’: Primary health care in practices, 1950s–2000s. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. 319, p. 1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115321. Full text in Research Archive
• Mussie, Kirubel Manyazewal; Gradmann, Christoph; Yimer, Solomon Abebe & Manyazewal, Tsegahun (2021). Pragmatic Management of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis: A Qualitative Analysis of Human Resource Constraints in a Resource-Limited Country context—Ethiopia. International Journal of Public Health. ISSN 1661-8556. 66:633917, p. 1–8. doi: 10.3389/ijph.2021.633917. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives: Existing evidence suggests that drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) remains a huge public health threat in high-burden TB countries such as Ethiopia. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the challenges of healthcare workers (HCWs) involved in providing DR-TB care in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Methods: We conducted in-depth interviews with 18 HCWs purposively selected from 10 healthcare facilities in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. We then transcribed the audiotaped interviews, and thematically analysed the transcripts using Braun and Clark’s reflexive thematic analysis framework. Results: We identified five major themes: 1) inadequate training and provision of information on DR-TB to HCWs assigned to work in DR-TB services, 2) fear of DR-TB infection, 3) risk of contracting DR-TB, 4) a heavy workload, and 5) resource limitations. Conclusion: Our findings highlight major human resource constraints that current DR-TB care policies need to foresee and accommodate. New evidence and best practices on what works in DR-TB care in such resource-limited countries are needed in order to address implementation gaps and to meet global TB strategies.

• Overton, Kristen; Fortané, Nicolas; Broom, Alex; Raymond, Stephanie; Gradmann, Christoph & Orubu, Ebiowei Samuel F [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2021). Waves of attention: Patterns and themes of international antimicrobial resistance reports, 1945-2020. BMJ Global Health. 6(11). doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006909. Full text in Research Archive
• Ereso, Berhane Megerssa; Sagbakken, Mette; Gradmann, Christoph & Yimer, Solomon Abebe (2021). Treatment outcomes of patients with drug-sensitive tuberculosis under community-based versus facility-based directly observed treatment, short course strategy in Southwest Ethiopia: a prospective cohort study. BMJ Open. 11(7). doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-048369. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: To compare tuberculosis (TB) treatment outcomes and associated factors among patients attending community-based versus facility-based directly observed treatment, short course (DOTS). Design: A prospective cohort study. Setting: The study was conducted in Southwest Ethiopia. There were seven hospitals (five primary, one general and one specialised), 120 health centres and 494 health posts. Participants: A total of 1161 individuals consented to participate in the study (387 patients under community-based DOTS (CB-DOTS) and 774 patients under facility-based DOTS (FB-DOTS)). Individuals who could not respond to the questions, mentally or critically ill patients, and those less than 15 years old, were excluded from the study. Primary outcome measure: TB treatment outcomes were compared among patients under CB-DOTS versus FB-DOTS. Risk ratio (RR), risk difference (RD) and confidence interval (CI) were calculated among the study groups. In addition, χ2 or Fisher’s exact tests were used to compare group differences, with a p value of <0.05 considered statistically significant. Results: Patients who opted for CB-DOTS were more likely to be cured by 12% than those who opted for FB-DOTS (RR=1.12, 95%CI=0.96 to 1.30). Patients under CB-DOTS had a lesser risk of death (RR=0.93, 95% CI=0.49 to 1.77) and a lower risk of treatment failure (RR=0.86, 95% CI=0.22 to 3.30) than those under FB-DOTS. Furthermore, patients who opted for CB-DOTS were less likely to have a positive sputum smear result at the end of the treatment period (p=0.042) compared with their counterparts. Conclusion: The study showed that CB-DOTS is more effective than FB-DOTS in terms of improving cure rate and sputum conversion rate, as well as lowering treatment failure rate. Our findings show the need for scaling up and a further decentralisation of CB-DOTS approach to improve access to TB treatment service for the rural community.

• Kirchhelle, Claas; Atkinson, Paul; Broom, Alex; Chuengsatiansup, Komatra; Ferreira, Jorge Pinto & Fortané, Nicolas [Show all 22 contributors for this article] (2020). Setting the standard: Multidisciplinary hallmarks for structural, equitable and tracked antibiotic policy. BMJ Global Health. 5:e003091(9), p. 1–14. doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003091. Full text in Research Archive
• Mussie, Kirubel; Gradmann, Christoph & Manyazewal, Tsegahun (2020). Bridging the gap between policy and practice: A qualitative analysis of providers' field experiences tinkering with directly observed therapy in patients with drug-resistant tuberculosis in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMJ Open. 10(6), p. 1–8. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035272. Full text in Research Archive
• Ereso, Berhane Megerssa; Yimer, Solomon Abebe; Gradmann, Christoph & Sagbakken, Mette (2020). Barriers for tuberculosis case finding in Southwest Ethiopia: A qualitative study. PLOS ONE. 15(1). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226307. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph & Mbuya, Alexander William (2019). Kibong'oto: The History of Global Tuberculosis Control seen through Local Archives. Michael. ISSN 1893-9651. 16(3), p. 270–292. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Tuberculosis (TB) and its control have held an important place in global health since the return of the disease came up for discussion in the 1980s. However, this history is as a rule written from the archives of international institutions like the WHO, making it a history of policies rather than of practices. Using local archives facilitates fresh insight. The building of such an archive in northern Tanzania is presented in this paper. Kibong’oto Hospital has existed as a specialized TB hospital since 1926. Its archive offers insight into a history of TB in diagnosis and treatment that is rather different from that of high income countries, and a story seldom told.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2019). Treatment on Trial: Tanzania’s National Tuberculosis Program, the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, and the Road to DOTS, 1977-1991. Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences. ISSN 0022-5045. 74(3), p. 316–343. doi: 10.1093/jhmas/jrz029. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Tanzania’s national tuberculosis control program, created in 1977, is credited with having been the main inspiration for the World Health Organization’s Directly Observed Treatment, Short-Course (DOTS) strategy for the control of tuberculosis, which was implemented from 1994. The text focuses on what previously took place in Tanzanian tuberculosis control between 1977 and the early 1990s. What was it that the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, which was central in the effort, assisted in creating? In what sense was the program innovative? How could a country whose health system was destroyed by a deepening economic crisis in the 1980s become a lighthouse of tuberculosis control? How much consideration was given to the rise of HIV/AIDS that occurred in parallel? The paper proposes answers to these questions, and suggests that we should see the creation of the Tanzanian program as a laboratory of nascent global health.

• Mussie, Kirubel; Solomon, Abebe Yimer; Manyazewal, Tsegahun & Gradmann, Christoph (2019). Exploring local realities: Perceptions and experiences of healthcare workers on the management and control of drug-resistant tuberculosis in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PLOS ONE. 14(11). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224277. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) remains a major health security threat worldwide. The effectiveness of implementation of DR-TB control strategies has been a subject of research and controversy. In resource-limited settings, using conventional medicine as the only framework to explain DR-TB gives a rather incomplete picture of the disease. This study intended to explore the perceptions and experiences of healthcare workers on the management and control of DR-TB in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Methods The study employed a qualitative methodology with an inductive approach and a thematic analysis. It involved in-depth interviews with healthcare workers providing clinical services to DR-TB patients in 10 public healthcare facilities in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Results A total of 18 healthcare workers participated until data saturation, which included 12 clinical nurses, four health officers and two medical laboratory technicians. The findings show that healthcare workers perceive DR-TB as a growing public health threat in Ethiopia, due to factors such as poverty, poor nutrition, crowded settings, healthcare worker and general public awareness of DR-TB, lack of good governance and culture. Conclusion The perspectives drawn from the healthcare workers shed more light on the image of DR-TB in a developing country context. It has been shown that understanding DR-TB is not confined to what can be drawn from the sphere of biomedicine. There are also interconnected barriers, which predict a dystopia in the epidemiology of DR-TB. Bringing DR-TB under control requires taking a step back from an overwhelming focus on the biomedical facets of the disease, and employ critical thinking on the wider social and structural forces as equally important targets.

• Gradmann, Christoph; Harrison, Mark & Rasmussen, Anne (2019). Typhoid and the Military in the Early 20th Century. Clinical Infectious Diseases. ISSN 1058-4838. 69(Supplement_5), p. S385–S387. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciz672. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background In the decades following the discovery of the bacillus causing typhoid, in 1880, understanding of the disease formerly known as enteric fever was transformed, offering new possibilities for prevention. Gradually, measures that aimed to prevent infection from human carriers were developed, as were inoculations designed to confer immunity against typhoid and paratyphoid fevers. These were initially introduced in European armies that were regularly ravaged by typhoid, especially garrisons stationed in the colonies. This article reviews the research undertaken in the armed forces and the measures that they implemented in the years up to and during the First World War. Methods The article is based on an analytical review of scientific literature from the early 19th century, focusing on the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. Results The armies of the United Kingdom, Germany, and France undertook important work on the transmission of typhoid in the years between 1890 and 1918. Many preventive measures were introduced to deal with the spread of typhoid but these varied between the 3 countries, depending largely on their political traditions. Inoculation was particularly successful in preventing typhoid and greatly reduced the number of casualties from this disease during the First World War. Despite this, it proved difficult to prevent paratyphoid infection, and debates continued over which vaccines to use and whether or not immunization should be voluntary. Conclusions By the end of the First World War, the value of inoculation in preventing the spread of typhoid had been proven. Its successful implementation demonstrates the importance of vaccination as a public health intervention during times of conflict and social upheaval.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2018). From lighthouse to hothouse: hospital hygiene, antibiotics and the evolution of infectious disease, 1950–1990. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences. ISSN 0391-9714. 40(8), p. 1–25. doi: 10.1007/s40656-017-0176-8. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2017). The measure of disease. The pathological animal experiment in Robert Koch’s medical bacteriology. In Asdal, Kristin; Druglitrø, Tone & Hinchliffe, Steve (Ed.), Humans, Animals and Biopolitics: The More Than Human Condition. Routledge. ISSN 9781472448682. p. 101–118. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Human-animal co-existence is central to a politics of life, how we order societies, and to debates about who ‘we’ humans think ‘we’ are. In other words, our ways of understanding and ordering human-animal relations have economic and political implications and affect peoples’ everyday lives. By bringing together historically-oriented approaches and contemporary ethnographies which engage with science and technology studies (STS), this book reflects the multi-sited, multi-species, multi-logic and multiple ways in which lives are and have been assembled, disassembled, practised and possibly policed and politicized. Instead of asking only how control and knowledge are and have been extended over life, the chapters in this book also look at what happens when control fails, at practices which defy orders, escape detection, fail to produce or only loosely hang together. In doing so the book problematises and extends the Foucauldian notion of biopolitics that has been such a central analytical concept in studies of human-animal relations and provides a unique resource of cases and theoretical refinements regarding the ways in which we live together with “more than human others”.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2017). Transitions, Traditions: From Colonial to Global Health. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. ISSN 1369-8486. 64, p. 101–105. doi: 10.1016/j.shpsc.2017.05.005. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2017). Medical bacteriology: microbes and disease, 1870-2000. In Jackson, Mark (Eds.), The Routledge History of Disease. Routledge. ISSN 9780415720014. p. 378–401. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2016). Re-Inventing Infectious Disease: Antibiotic Resistance and Drug Development at the Bayer Company 1945-80. Medical history. ISSN 0025-7273. 60(2), p. 155–180. doi: 10.1017/mdh.2016.2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper analyses how research on antibiotic resistance has been a driving force in the development of new antibiotics. Drug resistance, while being a problem for physicians and patients, offers attractive perspectives for those who research and develop new medicines. It imposes limits on the usability of older medicines and simultaneously modifies pathologies in a way that opens markets for new treatments. Studying resistance can thus be an important part of developing and marketing antibiotics. The chosen example is that of the German pharmaceutical company Bayer. Before World War Two, Bayer had pioneered the development of anti-infective chemotherapy, sulpha drugs in particular, but had missed the boat when it came to fungal antibiotics. Exacerbated by the effects of war, Bayer’s world market presence, which had been considerable prior to the war, had plummeted. In this critical situation, the company opted for a development strategy that tried to capitalise on the problems created by the use of first-generation antibiotics. Part and parcel of this strategy was monitoring what can be called the structural change of infectious disease. In practice, this meant to focus on pathologies resulting from resistance and hospital infections. In addition, Bayer also focused on lifestyle pathologies such as athlete’s foot. This paper will follow drug development and marketing at Bayer from 1945 to about 1980. In this period, Bayer managed to regain some of its previous standing in markets but could not escape from the overall crisis of anti-infective drug development from the 1970s on.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2016). Africa as a Laboratory: Robert Koch, Tropical Medicine and Epidemiology around 1900. In Vögele, Jörg; Knöll, Stefanie & Noack, Thorsten (Ed.), Epidemien und Pandemien in historischer Perspektive - Epidemics and Pandemics in Historical Perspective. Springer. ISSN 9783658138752. p. 325–335. doi: 10.1007/978-3-658-13875-2_24. Full text in Research Archive
• Podolsky, Scott H; Bud, Robert; Gradmann, Christoph; Hobæk, Bård; Kirchhelle, Claas & Mitvedt, Tore [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2015). History Teaches Us That Confronting Antibiotic Resistance Requires Stronger Global Collective Action. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics (JLME). ISSN 1073-1105. 43(3), p. 27–32. doi: 10.1111/jlme.12271. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2014). A spirit of scientific rigour: Koch's postulates in twentieth-century medicine. Microbes and Infection. ISSN 1286-4579. 16, p. 885–892. doi: 10.1016/j.micinf.2014.08.012. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This article explores one of a citation classics in medical literature - Koch's postulates. It analyses their creation in the nineteenth century andtheir popularity in the twentieth century. As a genre of historiography, references to the postulates are anecdotes. In referring to a historical event that never happened, such references serve to remind their audiences of a tradition of experimental medicine that supposedly originated with Robert Koch.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2014). Physicians, Memory and History: Explaining the History of Medicine. In Astad, Anne-Marie (Eds.), Årbok 2013. Novus Forlag. ISSN 9788270997893. p. 359–367. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2014). Antibiotika und Antibiotikaresistenz – Infektionskrankheiten und ihre Kontrolle im 20. Jahrhundert. Krankenhaushygiene up2date. ISSN 1862-5797. 9, p. 109–122. doi: 10.1055/s-0034-1377297. Full text in Research Archive
• Asdal, Kristin & Gradmann, Christoph (2014). Science, technology, medicine - and the state: The science-state nexus in Scandinavia 1850-1980. Science in Context. ISSN 0269-8897. 27(3), p. 177–186. doi: 10.1017/S0269889714000039. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2013). Sensitive Matters: The World Health Organisation and Antibiotic Resistance Testing, 1945-1975. Social history of medicine. ISSN 0951-631X. 26(3), p. 555–574. doi: 10.1093/shm/hkt018. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2013). Exoticism, Bacteriology and the Staging of the Dangerous. In Rütten, Thomas & King, Martina (Ed.), Contagionism and Contagious Diseases: Medicine and Literature 1880–1933. De Gruyter Brill. ISSN 9783110305722. p. 65–81. doi: 10.1515/9783110306118.65. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2013). Laboratories take control: Robert Koch and the tubercle bacillus / Os laboratórios assumem o controlo: Robert Koch e o bacilo da tuberculose. In Medcalf, Alexander; Altink, Henrice; Saaverdra, Monica & Bhattacharya, Sanjoy (Ed.), tuberculosis: a short history / tuberculose: uma breve história. Orient BlackSwan. ISSN 9788125051725. p. 10–18. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2013). Biologics, Medicine and the Therapeutic Revolution: Understanding the History of Twentieth-Century Medicine. In Schwerin, Alexander von; Stoff, Heiko & Wahrig, Bettina (Ed.), Biologics, A History of Agents Made From Living Organisms in the Twentieth Century. Pickering and Chatto. ISSN 9781848934306. p. 193–199. Full text in Research Archive
• Evensen, Stein A.; Gradmann, Christoph; Larsen, Øivind & Natvig, Jacob B (2013). Ugelstads kuler. Michael Quarterly. ISSN 1504-0658. 10(1), p. 14–112. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Redigert referat fra aktørseminar i Det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi 1. oktober 2012 om utviklingen av Ugelstads kuler.

• Jensen, Siri; Lie, Anne Kveim; Eliassen, Knut Eirik; Lindbæk, Morten & Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Antibiotikaresistens i Norge-aktørseminar 16.01.2008. Michael Quarterly. ISSN 1504-0658. 9(1), p. 13–79. Full text in Research Archive
• Jensen, Siri; Lie, Anne Kveim; Eliassen, Knut Eirik; Lindbæk, Morten & Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Erindringer om resistens- Et aktørseminar om antibiotikaresistensens historie. Michael Quarterly. ISSN 1504-0658. 9(1), p. 7–12. doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.10.0283. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Medical Mavericks gone astray - support for the history of medicine. In Larsen, Øivind; Fretheim, Atle; Larsen, Ingegerd Frøyshov & Westin, Steinar (Ed.), Medisinsk kunnskap - Hvor kommer den fra, og hva brukes den til?. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205399129. p. 89–96. Full text in Research Archive

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• Gradmann, Christoph (2025). Another Magic Mountain: Kibong'oto Hospital and African Tuberculosis, 1920-2000. Ohio University Press. ISBN 9780821426333. 328 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Jean-Paul, Gaudilliére; Beaudevin, Claire; Gradmann, Christoph; Lovell, Anne L. & Pordie, Laurent (2020). Global health and the new world order: Historical and anthropological approaches to a changing regime of governance. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9781526149671. 248 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2018). Robert Koch - Zentrale Texte. Springer Nature. ISBN 9783662564530. 212 p. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Dieser Band möchte seine Leser mit dem Autor Koch vertraut machen und enthält, neben einer Einleitung, eine Reihe von Aufsätzen zu seinen wichtigsten Arbeitsgebieten: Ätiologie, Epidemiologie und die Technik und Methodik des Labors. Dem Leser zeigt sich Koch darin als ein recht moderner Autor: Er bevorzugte die kleine Form, das „Paper“, wie man heute sagen würde. Er verstand es, auch weitreichende Erkenntnisse in klarer und anschaulicher Weise zu Papier zu bringen. Schließlich pflegte er durch Reiseberichte den Kontakt mit der Öffentlichkeit seiner Zeit. Der Autor Der Mediziner und Bakteriologe Robert Koch (1843-1910) ist ein Klassiker der medizinischen Forschung. Er steht für die Anfänge des medizinisch-bakteriologischen Labors mit Bakterienfärbung, Reinkultur und Tierversuch. Berühmt wurde er durch Arbeiten über Milzbrand, Cholera und Tuberkulose. Schließlich lieferte er bedeutende Beiträge zu Tropenmedizin und Epidemiologie, etwa mit der Erforschung der Rolle symptomloser Überträger des Typhus.

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• Gradmann, Christoph (2026). Gesundheitsmagazin - Sprechstunde. [Radio]. Deutschlandfunk. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  En eller flere eksperter gir informasjon om kunnskapsnivået innen sitt medisinske fagområde og svarer deretter på spørsmål fra lytterne. Programmet suppleres med en aktuell informasjonsblokk.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2026). Sykdommen som ikke forsvant – tuberkulosens historie i internasjonal helse. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Tuberkulosen har to historier. En av dem handler en sykdom som forsvant i Norge og andre land i nord. Den andre historien er den som fortsatt finnes i sør. Foredraget handler om den historien og har fokus på to tema: Hvordan tuberkulosen ble sentralt i global helse etter 1945; sykdommens historie i Afrika sør for Sahara og særlig in Tanzania.

• Gradmann, Christoph; Puyvallée, Antoine de Bengy; Mangesho, Peter Ernest & <jason.grant-rowles@kcl.ac.uk>, "Jason Grant-Rowles" (2025). Global Health - What's Next? doi: https:/www.circle-u.eu/events/open-conversation-global-health-whats-next. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This Open Conversation is inspired by this year’s Circle U. Summer School on Global Health. It addresses a pressing question: what is the future of global health in times of geopolitical shifts and financial uncertainty? Over the last months, global health – long shaped by Western political dominance, governance, and funding since the 1980s – has entered a deep crisis. The United States, historically the largest contributor to global health funding mechanisms, is pulling back from central aid and intervention structures. The implications for sponsor-driven partnerships such as the Global Fund and GAVI remain unclear, casting uncertainty over national disease control programs worldwide. This withdrawal is not only financial but also geopolitical. It intersects with the rise of China as a challenger to U.S. hegemony, and raises new questions about the roles of BRICS countries and the European Union in shaping the future of global health.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2025). Episode 138 – Tuberculosis in Tanzania with Christoph Gradmann | Infectious Historians. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Christoph Gradmann (University of Oslo) joins Merle and Lee to discuss his new book on 20th century tuberculosis in Tanzania seen through the records of Kibong’oto hospital, the main hospital that treated the disease in the region. The conversation begins with some context about Tanzania and its history during and after the colonial period. As a case study, Kibong’oto is important in two ways that comes across the discussion. First, it highlights tuberculosis as a 20th century disease, as opposed to the 19th century disease that appears in most textbooks. Second, it represents a story about biomedicine under difficult conditions – including patient resistance to certain treatments. In the discussion, Christoph points out some of the sources he uses – such as case books – and the changes in their quality over time. Before conclusion, Christoph also reflects on writing his book during Covid and goes into some detail in discussing Covid in Tanzania.

• Straand, Jørund; Gradmann, Christoph; Lindbæk, Morten & Simonsen, Gunnar Skov (2025). The history of antibiotic development and resistance (Third Edition). In Quah, Stella R. (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Academic Press. ISSN 9780323972802. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-99967-0.00076-4. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The identification and development of specific biological or chemical medicines to control bacteria and cure patients suffering from infectious disease was a major scientific innovation in medicine. But following widespread use of antimicrobials, bacterial resistance emerged and spread toward an increasing number of antibiotics. Worldwide antibiotic overuse and misuse are important for the selection of bacterial resistance which has become a substantial global threat against public health. Declining supplies of new antibiotics strengthens this concern. Strategies for counteracting the threatening inability of antibiotics to control infectious disease are based on the approach to “think globally while acting locally.”

• Gradmann, Christoph (2025). Die WHO ohne die USA. [Radio]. Deutschlandfunk Kultur. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Der US-Austritt aus der WHO ist finanziell dramatisch, so Medizinhistoriker Christoph Gradmann. Aber es gehe auch politischer Rückhalt verloren. Die WHO sei in Krisen ein diplomatischer Türöffner gewesen. Zudem drohe Kontrollverlust bei Epidemien. https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/die-who-ohne-die-usa-100.html

• Straand, Jørund; Gradmann, Christoph; Lindbæk, Morten & Simonsen, Gunnar Skov (2024). Antibiotikaresistens – historien om da bakteriene slo tilbake. Michael. ISSN 1893-9651. 21(2), p. 184–201. doi: 10.5617/michael.11441. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Bakterier er dynamiske organismer som gjennom sin plastisitet og kontinuerlige tilpasning til omgivelsene illustrerer evolusjon gjennom naturlig utvalg og «survival of the fittest». Økt forekomst av antibiotikaresistens er et naturlig og forventet svar på utstrakt bruk av antibiotika. Dette forklarer hvorfor historien om utvikling og utbredelse av antibiotika følges av en parallell historie: historien om antibiotikaresistens – her dels omtalt som sett fra et norsk ståsted. I løpet av rundt 90 år med utstrakt bruk av antimikrobielle legemidler er erkjennelsen om hvordan antibiotikabruk og resistens henger sammen gradvis blitt mer og mer tydelig, fra spredte enkelttilfeller på 1930-tallet til dagens globale pandemi av resistente og multiresistente mikrober. Mikrobene har bevist sin evne til å utvikle resistens mot så å si samtlige antimikrobielle midler som er utviklet siden 1930-tallet.

• Straand, Jørund; Gradmann, Christoph; Lindbæk, Morten & Simonsen, Gunnar Skov (2024). Antibiotika - oppdagelse og utvikling fra før bakteriologiens gjennombrudd til i dag. Michael. ISSN 1893-9651. 21(2), p. 165–183. doi: 10.5617/michael.11416. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Oppdagelse og utvikling av antibakterielle legemidler er blant de største triumfene innen moderne medisin og i menneskehetens historie. Takket være antibiotika og kjemoterapeutika ble leger i stand til å behandle alvorlige infeksjonssykdommer og helbrede pasienter som ellers var levnet små sjanser til overlevelse. Ikke rart at antibakterielle midler ble opplevd som mirakelmedisiner da de ble tilgjengelige. Artikkelen gir en historisk framstilling av oppdagelse og utvikling av antibiotika, fra før bakteriologiens gjennombrudd mot slutten av 1800-tallet og fram til vår tid. Dagens situasjon kjennetegnes av økende antibiotika-resistens samtidig som tilgangen på nye og effektive antibiotika langt på vei har stoppetopp.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2024). Victoria Lee. The Arts of the Microbial World: Fermentation Science in Twentieth-Century Japan. American Historical Review. ISSN 0002-8762. doi: 10.1093/ahr/rhae014. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2024). Plectasin – historien om et antibiotikum som aldri kom på markedet. 21(2), p. 202–203. doi: 10.5617/michael.11442. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2024). Die dümmste Pandemie aller Zeiten. [Radio]. Pandemia Podcast. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Das Pandemia-Team beschäftigt sich noch einmal mit dem Vogelgrippe-Ausbruch bei Milchkühen in den USA. Der Veterinär Martin Beer erklärt, warum der Ausbruch jetzt eingedämmt werden muss. Die Historiker Maxime Schwartz und Christoph Gradmann sprechen darüber, was die pasteurisierte Milch mit Louis Pasteur zu tun hat - oder auch nicht. Und die Mikrobe des Monats ist ein Darmbakterium, das beim Blutspenden helfen könnte.

• Pitchforth, Emma; Ali, Gemma-Claire; Smith, Elta; Taylor, Jirka; Rayner, Tim & Lichten, Catherine [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2023). Corrigendum to “What and how can we learn from complex global problems for antimicrobial resistance policy? A comparative study combining historical and foresight approaches” [Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance 35 (2023) 110–121, (S2213716523001546), (10.1016/j.jgar.2023.08.019)]. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance. ISSN 2213-7165. 35, p. 357–357. doi: 10.1016/j.jgar.2023.11.001. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2023). Robert Koch, colonial medicine, global health – and us. 20(3), p. 302–312. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Robert Koch, pioneer of medical bacteriology and of tropical medicine, has been considered an exemplary researcher for a long time. In the light of postcolonial critique, should we re-consider our evaluation, and can he still be held as a professional role model and even name patron of public health research institutes? Especially his work in tropical medicine requires us to take another look.

• Asaduzzaman, Muhammad; Rødland, Ernst Kristian; Mekonnen, Zeleke; Gradmann, Christoph & Winkler, Andrea Sylvia (2022). Understanding transmission pathways and integrated digital surveillance potential of antimicrobial resistance in Ethiopia in a One Health approach: a mixed-method study protocol. BMJ Open. 12(6). doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-051022. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has a critical global impact, mostly affecting low- and middle-income countries. A major knowledge gap exists in understanding the transmission pathway of the gut colonisation with AMR bacteria between healthy humans and their animals in addition to the presence of those AMR bacteria in the surrounding environment. A One Health (OH) approach is necessary to address this multisectoral problem. Methods and analysis This cross-sectional, mixed-method OH study design will use both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection. Quantitative methods will be carried out to assess the prevalence and risk factors associated with multidrug resistant Gram-negative bacteria and vancomycin-resistant enterococci in humans, animals (cattle) and the environment. The focus will be on cattle rearing as an exposure risk for AMR among humans. The assessment of AMR in the population of Jimma, Ethiopia with or without exposure to cattle will reinforce the importance of OH research to identify the impending exchange of resistance profile between humans and animals as well as its ultimate dissemination in the surrounding environment. The targeted semistructured key stakeholder interviews will aid to strengthen the OH-AMR surveillance in Ethiopia by understanding the acceptability of an integrated AMR surveillance platform based on the District Health Information Software-2 and the feasibility of its context-specific establishment. Ethics and dissemination The study has been approved by the Regional Ethics Committee, Norway, and the Institutional Review Board of Jimma University, Ethiopia. The study’s data will be stored on a secure server known as Services for Sensitive Data hosted by the University of Oslo. In addition, the new European Union Global Data Protection Guidelines for data sharing, storage and protection will be followed. We will publish the results in peer-reviewed journals and present the findings at national and international conferences.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2021). Vergangenheit verschwindet nicht, wenn wir sie verurteilen. Sueddeutsche Zeitung. ISSN 0174-4917. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2020). Die Utopie der seuchenfreien Welt. NZZ Geschichte. 29, p. 28–43. Full text in Research Archive
• Gaudilliére, Jean-Paul & Gradmann, Christoph (2020). La sortie de l’OMS des Etats-Unis s’inscrit dans une longue tradition d’hostilité américaine envers cette institution. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2020). Big-game hunting in the history of epidemics. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. ISSN 1473-3099. 20(3), p. 298–298. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30081-5. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2020). Allemagne : l’institut Robert-Koch, puissant coordinateur de la lutte contre le virus. [Journal]. La Croix. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2020). Das Robert Koch-Institut hat genau den richtigen Namen. [Radio]. Deutschlandfunk Kultur. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2020). Corona ist nur eine Ahnung davon, was früher los war. [Journal]. Die Welt. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2020). Der eigenartige deutsche Heldenkult. [Journal]. Die Welt. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2020). Umbenennung des Robert Koch-Instituts? [TV]. 3Sat NANO. Full text in Research Archive
• Gaudilliére, Jean-Paul & Gradmann, Christoph (2020). Inade­quate, yet Indis­pensable: The WHO and the History of Global Health. Geschichte der Gegenwart. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2020). DLF Kalenderblatt. 125. Todestag von Louis Pasteur: Der Bändiger der Mikrobe. [Radio]. https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2019). Fiona Reid: Medicine in First World War Europe. Soldiers, Medics, Pacifists. H-Soz-Kult. Kommunikation und Fachinformation für die Geschichtswissenschaften. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2018). Testet ut nytt behandlingssystem på 1980-tallet: Da global helse ble til. [Journal]. Apollon. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2018). Robert Koch - Bakteriologe, Hygieniker und Mediziner. In Gradmann, Christoph (Eds.), Robert Koch - Zentrale Texte. Springer Nature. ISSN 9783662564530. p. 1–16. doi: 10.1007/978-3-662-56454-7. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Dieser Band möchte seine Leser mit dem Autor Koch vertraut machen und enthält, neben einer Einleitung, eine Reihe von Aufsätzen zu seinen wichtigsten Arbeitsgebieten: Ätiologie, Epidemiologie und die Technik und Methodik des Labors. Dem Leser zeigt sich Koch darin als ein recht moderner Autor: Er bevorzugte die kleine Form, das „Paper“, wie man heute sagen würde. Er verstand es, auch weitreichende Erkenntnisse in klarer und anschaulicher Weise zu Papier zu bringen. Schließlich pflegte er durch Reiseberichte den Kontakt mit der Öffentlichkeit seiner Zeit. Der Autor Der Mediziner und Bakteriologe Robert Koch (1843-1910) ist ein Klassiker der medizinischen Forschung. Er steht für die Anfänge des medizinisch-bakteriologischen Labors mit Bakterienfärbung, Reinkultur und Tierversuch. Berühmt wurde er durch Arbeiten über Milzbrand, Cholera und Tuberkulose. Schließlich lieferte er bedeutende Beiträge zu Tropenmedizin und Epidemiologie, etwa mit der Erforschung der Rolle symptomloser Überträger des Typhus.

• Loddenkemper, R.; JF, Murray; Gradmann, Christoph; Hopewell, Philipp C & Kato-Maeda, Midori (2018). History of Tuberculosis. ERS Monograph. ISSN 2312-508X. p. 8–27. doi: 10.1183/2312508X.erm8218. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This chapter begins with the supposition that Mycobacterium tuberculosis and humans co-evolved during their greater than 70 000-year partnership, but how and where are still not fully understood. During the Neolithic revolution the size of the population and its farming and animal domestication activities contributed to the maintenance and transmission of M. tuberculosis. TB continued its increase beginning around 1750 owing to the deplorable conditions prevailing during the first half of the Industrial revolution (overcrowding, malnutrition and absent sanitation), but then began to decline. Even after Robert Koch’s seminal discovery of M. tuberculosis in 1882, methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention advanced slowly. But then TB mortality again increased sharply in many countries during world war I and II. In 1944, effective TB antibiotics first appeared and even better ones followed. Major impediments to TB eradication or elimination remain HIV infection and drug resistance. The WHO created the End TB Strategy in 2014, but achieving its goals appears unlikely by 2035. Possible solutions include widespread treatment for LTBI and an effective vaccine.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2017). Règlement de comptes dans la bande à bacille: Robert Koch contre Louis Pasteur. [Radio]. France Culture. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2017). Medisinsk historie - hvorfor og hvordan? Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 137(10), p. 681–681. doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.17.0223. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2017). Die Charité - Geschichten von Leben und Tod. [TV]. ARD Erstes Deutsches Fernsehen . Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2017). Die nächste Vogelgrippe kommt bestimmt. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. ISSN 0174-4909. p. 12–12. Full text in Research Archive
• Winkler, Andrea Sylvia; Olsen, Ingvar Theo & Gradmann, Christoph (2017). Global health and its changing landscape. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 137(12/13), p. 853–853. doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.17.0489. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2016). Christian W. McMillen. Discovering Tuberculosis: A Global History, 1900 to the Present. Isis. ISSN 0021-1753. 107(3), p. 659–660. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2016). Mercer, Alexander: Infections, Chronic Disease, and the Epidemiological Transition. Gesnerus. ISSN 0016-9161. 73(1), p. 163–164. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2015). Global Tuberculosis — Lessons Learned, Lessons Lost. Somatosphere: Science, Medicine and Anthropology. Full text in Research Archive
• Breivik, Edvard & Gradmann, Christoph (2014). Halsesyke i Europas utkant - da difteriantitoksinet kom til Romsdals amt. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 134(7), p. 732–735. doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.13.0783. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2014). Magic Bullets, Moving Targets: Infectious disease, Antimicrobial Resistance and 20th Century Medicine. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2014). James F. Stark, The Making of Modern Anthrax, 1875–1920 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2013); Rosemary Wall, Bacteria in Britain, 1880–1939 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2013). Medical history. ISSN 0025-7273. 58(4), p. 606–612. doi: 10.1017/mdh.2014.56. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2014). Macht was! Die Seuche als Weckruf. [Radio]. HR2 - Hessischer Rundfunk. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2013). Bacteriology in British India: laboratory medicine and the tropics by Pratik Chakrabarti (review). Bulletin of The History of Medicine. ISSN 0007-5140. 87(4), p. 693–695. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2013). A Spirit Of Scientific Rigour: Koch's Postulates And 20th Century Medicine. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This lecture is on the historical origins and the popularity of 'Koch's Postulates'. Rather than Robert Koch, it was his colleague Friedrich Löffler who in 1884 wrote down the well-known three steps of isolation, cultivation and inoculation as conditions for establishing a microbial aetiology of an infectious disease. These postulates are frequently invoked in textbooks of medicine and medical history. Yet, strict adherence to them is rarely to be found in medical research. Already their assumed inventor, Koch, produced numerous variations in his own methodology. Underlying his work was a sort of trivial ontology of infectious diseases which rendered an experimental study of human pathologies in animal models practical and meaningful. There were many ways to pursue this end and Koch usually limited his discussion to practical questions related to the course that investigations had to take, while principal matters were only treated implicitly in his writings. Löffler's achievement was to popularise Koch's views in his postulates. Given that, it is not surprising that references to Koch's postulates in the 20th century usually refer to the spirit rather than the literal meaning of the postulates. Also there are countless variations of those postulates. For example, proponents of virology or molecular medicine devised variations of Koch's postulates that serve to relate their own work to classical bacteriology. The latter is perceived as the origin of modern experimental medicine. The nature of such references is less historical than anecdotal: referring to a historical event that has never happened in a strict sense, these references produce ex traditione credentials for experimental medicine.

• Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Christian Mehr, Kultur als Naturgeschichte. Opposition oder Komplementarität zur politischen Geschichtsschreibung 1850-1890, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag 2009. Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte. ISSN 0170-6233. 35, p. 70–71. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Der verborgene Feind - Die Geschichte der Seuchen. [Radio]. Deutschlandradio Kultur. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Der verborgene Feind Die Geschichte der Seuchen Von Lydia Heller Die Angst vor tödlichen, ansteckenden Krankheiten - vor Seuchen - gehört zu den Urängsten der Menschheit. Mit dem Aufkommen der Bakteriologie im 19. Jahrhundert wurden die Ursachen zwar sichtbar, aber der gesellschaftliche Kontrollverlust blieb. Seuchen also als Phantasma der Moderne: Wie wirken sie in Körperbildern und Sicherheitsmodellen? Und: Was macht eine Seuche mit einer Gesellschaft?

• Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Medical Services, Brill's Encyclopedia of the First World War. De Gruyter Brill. ISSN 9789004207394. p. 716–717. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph & Eckart, Wolfgang Uwe (2012). Medicine, Brill's Encyclopedia of the First World War. De Gruyter Brill. ISSN 9789004207394. p. 161–168. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Tuberculosis then and now: Perspectives on the History of an Infectious Disease (Condrau/Worboys). Gesnerus. ISSN 0016-9161. 69, p. 187–189. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Modernity, public health and the welfare state. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. ISSN 1369-8486. 43, p. 825–827. doi: 10.1016/j.shpsc.2012.10.004. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Die Zukunft der Infektionskrankheiten / ORF Dimensionen. [Radio]. Östereichischer Rundfunk. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2012). Wie Louis Pasteur Leben in Wein und Bier entdeckte. [Radio]. Hessischer Rundfunk. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2011). Humaneksperimenter, gjennomført i Guatemala av US-amerikanske samfunnsmedisiner i 1940-tallet. [Radio]. NRK P3. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph (2011). Metaphors under the Microscope: The epistemic Role of Metaphor in the Science and in robert Koch's Bacteriology. Isis. ISSN 0021-1753. 102(3), p. 570–571. Full text in Research Archive
• Gradmann, Christoph & L, Paterson, Erin (2026). Pipelines and Pipedreams: The Crises and the Futures of Antibiotic Drug Development. Zenodo. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.20812280. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The edition contains an introduction and two transcriptions of roundtable discussions that were held 8.11.2024 in Strasbourg (Lieu d’Europe). They are documenting work by the project: "How did the antibiotic pipeline run dry, funded by the Research Council of Norway" (RCN 314490).

• Bjerke, Lise; Lie, Anne Kveim; Fjeld, Heidi E; Gradmann, Christoph; Roalkvam, Sidsel & Kannuri, Nanda Kishore (2026). Antibiotics and India’s pharmaceutical industry: An exploration of drug production and trade in globalised pharmaceutical geographies. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Antibiotics play complex roles in global health. While many still lack access, their massive use has contributed to the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In addition, our supply of these life-saving drugs rests on intricate networks of globalised production and trade. This thesis explores the production and trade of antibiotics in India's pharmaceutical industry in the context of globalised pharmaceutical geographies and their histories. Situated within the interdisciplinary field of pharmaceutical studies, the thesis draws on perspectives from medical anthropology, history, and science and technology studies, and is based on document and trade data analysis combined with ethnographic fieldwork in India. The thesis shows how India’s pharmaceutical industry has become a major global supplier of antibiotics, while also grappling with the reliance on China’s industry for the import of antibiotic ingredients, and the environmental challenges accompanying the industrial manufacturing of antibiotics. The thesis demonstrates that, despite major trade tensions, collaboration and competition coexist in the China-India nexus of antibiotic supply chains. The thesis also challenges the often taken-for-granted status of drugs as simply bare chemical molecules, showing how antibiotics take on multiple and sometimes clashing identities depending on the practices, relations and politics in which they are involved. A key contribution of the thesis is its focus on the environmental aspect of antibiotics and AMR. By analysing the science-policy response to industrial antibiotic pollution and AMR in India, it shows how various uncertainties at the molecular level are used to challenge scientific claims and the imposition of discharge limits. As the forces underlying antibiotic pollution extend beyond the molecular and local scale, the thesis emphasises the need to address the broader global dynamics that shape drug manufacturing and the rise of AMR in environments and beyond.

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